ETHNOBOTANICAL HERITAGE

Ethnobotany is the study of the ways in which human beings make use of plants, both wild and cultivated. All information related to the use, gathering, harvesting, processing, tending and grafting of trees is part of our ethnobotanical heritage. Although fruit trees are grown primarily for their fruits, their leaves and branches may also be used as medicine, fodder of fuel. The branches of some trees, such as the olive, may be used to weave baskets, and the resin which seeps from the trunks of apricot trees serves as glue. Where culinary uses are concerned, fruits maybe consumed fresh or dried, made into molasses, syrup or jam. Some wild fruits are similarly utilised.

Within the ethnobotanical heritage, we should also acknowledge that men and women possess separate bodies of knowledge. For example, the grafting of fruit trees is generally a male domain, while women are the experts at processing fruits for culinary and medical uses. Some heritage fruit varieties are named after the people who first developed the variety or first grafted them in the area; such as the Suleyman Hoca pear, Hafiz Ali almond, Hasmet almond, Osman almond, Omer almond and Recep grape. Although men more often give their names to fruits, there are some exceptions, such as the Keram Nine almond and Filimana karasi fig. We have endeavoured to record the stories behind fruit names. For example, the Lady's Fig which grows in the district of Datca is so called because it is a delicate, thin-skinned fruit. And the "Fox Chasing" Pear got its name because foxes are reputed to be fond of this pear and recognise its scent from a long distance.

CULINARY USES OF FRUIT AND PRESERVATION METHODS 

Apart from being eaten fresh, many fruits, including figs, pears, quinces and grapes are dried, while others are made into jam, syrup, molasses or fruit leather (pestil). In the past fruit was the main source of sugar in rural areas. Fruit molasses known as pekmez, particularly that made of grape juice, is a product traditionally made in all Turkey's fruit growing regions. In Mugla we have encountered pear molasses in the district of Milas. Jams known as pestel made with pekmez in place of sugar syrup are another local product, and we have recorded pestel made of watermelon peel (the white layer beneath the green outer rind) in Ula and pumpkin in Mugla market. Jams made with sugar - which prior to the 20th century was a luxury in rural areas - are rare in villages, but found in towns, where they are made of male figs, bitter oranges, sweet oranges, bergamots and tree-strawberries. Syrups for making the refreshing summer fruit drinks known as sherbet were widespread in the past, before being supplanted by manufactured fizzy drinks. Lemon, black mulberry, sour pomegranate and sour cherry were among the most widespread kinds of sherbet, as well that made of unripe mandarin oranges which was once popular in Bodrum (Tuzlaci 2005:134). A different kind of drink made of bitter almonds called somata, drunk either hot or cold, has virtually died out today. Ground sweet almonds were used as a filling for sweet pastries such as sarayli and katmer (Tuzlaci 2005:119). 

One of the most distinctive features of Turkish cuisine is the use of sour flavours, in soups, stews, kebabs, vegetable dishes and salads. Sour varieties and unripe fruits are often used for this purpose. These include the juice of unripe grapes, wine vinegar and sour plums. In the village of Dokuzcam, near to Mugla city, the provincial capital, a type of sour plum is boiled down to make a sour condiment known as erik eksisi. Inhabitants of the yayla (mountain pasture) of Dutagaci in the district of Milas used to gather unripe sour mulberries, dry them in the sun, then crush them in a mortar. This was then stored in jars and added to dishes as required. However, since lemons have become easily and cheaply available even in non-citrus growing rural areas, families no longer produce this traditional sour ingredient. The production of sour pomegranate juice has also greatly diminished in the province, although it is still widely made in many other parts of Turkey. The love of sour flavours is illustrated by the popularity of unripe almonds known as çağla, which are eaten fresh as a tart-tasting crunchy snack in springtime. A more unusual edible product of the almond tree is the resin, which sometimes drips down the bark and is a favourite with children.

Figs, grapes and olives display a wide variety in terms of preservation techniques. A delicious sweetmeat is made of figs stuffed with almonds and then baked. Most fig varieties can be eaten fresh or dried for the winter. In Muğla the figs are dipped in salt water and then mixed with myrtle leaves and oregano, which help to preserve the figs and impart a delicious aroma. Dried figs are often eaten stuffed with sesame seeds or the dark green fruits of the turpentine tree, whose crunchy texture and spicy flavour contrast with the sweet sticky figs.

Many varieties of grape are suitable for drying, and as well as being eaten as a snack, are stewed or added to pastries and some savoury dishes. Vine leaves, fresh in season or salted for use during the rest of the year, are made into one of Turkey's favourite stuffed dishes, known as sarma or dolma. Olives are preserved in various ways, sometimes cracked (kirma) or slashed (cekiste), or made into olive oil, which is one of the staple foodstuffs in this region. Olive oil is not only used in salads and the famous dishes of boiled wild herbs which are a speciality of the Aegean region, but in all vegetable and meat dishes, boreks (savoury layered pastries), and for frying. Bread or figs are often eaten dipped in fresh stone milled virgin extra olive oil.

MEDICAL USES 

Wild Pear: The boiled juice of these fruits is beneficial for diabetes (Ertug 2004b).

Bitter Almond: Roasted and ground bitter almonds are used to cure wounds and rashes. Although the application to wounds is painful, it is an effective cure (Ertuğ 2004b). Eating one bitter almond at noon and in the evening helps to reduce blood sugar levels in cases of diabetes (Tuzlaci 2005:119).


Quince: Quince leaves boiled with mint, lemon and apple relieve coughs, and a decoction of the fresh or dried leaves and flowers relieves chest congestion. A decoction of the leaves is also used for stomach pains, and a decoction of the seeds to cure colds (Ertug 2004b).

Blackberry: One handful each of the fresh shoots, flowers and roots boiled in a litre of water is beneficial for flu, throat infections and toothache. For abdominal pains a decoction of the root is effective. (Ertug 2004b).

Walnut: The ground fresh leaves of the walnut tree applied externally are used to relieve rheumatism. However, if repeated over a long period, this causes skin irritation. (Tuzlaci 2005:150).

Turpentine Tree Fruit: The ground fruits prepared like coffee prevent colds (Ertug 2004).

Prickly Pear: This fruit helps digestion, and when eaten with the seeds relieves stomach pain. A mixture of the seeds with dried grapes and olive oil is a cure for kidney stones. Eating the whole fruit causes kidney stones to disintegrate. The peeled leaves cooked in ashes are eaten as an anticoagulant. Snake and scorpion bites are treated by wrapping them in leaves which have been heated on the stove. (Ertuğ 2004b).

Grapefruit: Grapefruit juice reduces blood sugar levels (Ertuğ 2004b).
Carob: Eating the fruit without the seeds is good for diarrhoea, and if the entire fruit, including the seeds, is ground and boiled, this decoction helps to cure kidney stones. A decoction of the fruit is also beneficial for coughs, bronchitis and diarrhoea (Ertug 2004b).

Fig: The juice of unripe figs is rubbed on warts. The ripe fruit prevents constipation (Ertug 2004b).

Black Fig: Black figs are sliced open and applied as a poultice to cure pain, swelling, boils and infections.

Black Mulberry: The black mulberry cure sores and wounds in the mouth, and the leaf is good for diabetes.

Lemon: A roasted lemon cut into thin slices and applied as a poultice to the throat helps to cure tonsillitis. A cut lemon applied to the forehead helps relieve headache and reduce high blood pressure (Ertug 2004b).

Mandarin Orange: A tisane of either mandarin orange or orange flowers acts as a tranquiliser (Ertug 2004b).

Myrtle: A decoction of the leaves reduces sugar levels. The roasted leaves are ground into a powder that helps to cure wounds when sprinkled on them for three days running. Since this is an evergreen tree only the fresh leaves are used (Ertug 2004b).

Mastic: Mastic is applied to open wounds. The fruits of this tree are made into a decoction that is beneficial for gynaecological complaints. A leafy branch is heated and placed on the abdomen to cure abdominal pain, and water obtained by boiling the leaves acts as a painkiller (Ertug 2004b).
Sour orange: The roasted whole fruit placed on the forehead cures headache (Ertug 2004b).

Olive: Fresh shoots of the olive tree are dried and made into a tisane, which is drunk two or three times a day to reduce blood pressure. A decoction of the boiled leaves helps to cure diabetes. Olive oil is applied by midwives to assist birth, and also rubbed on wounds, especially those caused by rusty nails (Ertug 2004b). Olive oil is also used in the treatment of animals for eye diseases, and mixed with egg white as a cure for burns (Tuzlaci 2005: 165). 


HANDCRAFTS 

Several dyes for woollen yarn are obtained from fruits and fruit trees in the Mugla region: a reddish black dye is obtained from pomegranate rind, lemon yellow from quince leaves, brown from walnuts and a greenish colour from olives.

Olive shoots and the branches of wild olive trees are used to make baskets. Myrtle branches are used to weave fishermen's baskets. The wood of Arbutus andrachne (locally known as sandal) the eastern strawberry tree, the carob and myrtle are used for carving spoons, while the particularly durable wood of the wild pear is preferred for making mortars.

FODDER; FUEL

The leaves and some fruit trees, particularly citrus trees, olive trees and the eastern strawberry tree, are used as animal fodder. Small figs and ground carob are also fed to animals. 

Pruned wood and dead trees are used as fuel. The pruned wood from vines is used as a fuel when boiling grape juice to make pekmez (molasses). Some varieties are preferred as fuel because they produce less smoke, such as both species of strawberry tree. In the district of Datca almond shells and olive pulp are important sources of fuel. Tinder prepared from fungi growing on carob trees was once used to light fires. (Tuzlaci 2005:129).

OTHER USES

Mulberry: Sericulture and silk weaving used to be widespread in Mugla, and orchards of white mulberry trees were established to feed the silkworms. Tuzlaci refers to another interesting use of the mulberry in the Bodrum area: apparently adding a green mulberry twig to the saucepan speeds up the cooking of chickpeas and broad beans (Tuzlaci 2005: 161).
 
Carob: Honey bees are particularly fond of carob blossom, as well as being attracted to myrtle, pomegranate and oak blossom.

Oleander (Nerium Oleander): Until recent years gardeners in Mugla used cord made from the peeled bark of oleander bushes to tie grafts.



TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

Changes in Agricultural Crops Over Time: Local people in the Palamutbuku (Acorn Bay) area of Datca told us that this bay was once entirely covered with oak forest. The acorn cups rather than the acorns themselves were of commercial value, many tons being shipped to the Aegean islands. When the demand for this crop ceased, the oak trees were cut down and replaced by fig trees. Then in the 1960s the fig orchards were replaced by almond trees. Today figs and almonds gathered from the remaining trees are sold to tourists in front of the hotels, guesthouses and restaurants that line the shore.

Similar changes can be observed elsewhere in the region: At Karakaya (now Gumusluk) in Bodrum, vineyards were once the most important economic crop, but replaced by figs in the mid-20th century. A local Jewish inhabitant, Avram Galanti, recorded in his memoirs that before the 1940s Bodrum was filled with vineyards (Bodrumlu 1996- first ed. 1945). Then the vineyards and fig orchards were dug up to make way for citrus orchards (Oztop 2005), but since the 1990s the market for local citrus fruits has steadily declined, and in recent years some farmers have not even bothered to pick their crop.
 
Prof. Ertan Tuzlaci, a pharmaceutical botanist originally from Bodrum, has witnessed this series of changes (Tuzlaci 2005: 230-232). He relates how as a child in the 1950s he used to go to the family's oak plantation in the village of Bitez to help remove the acorn cups, which were used in tanning leather and fetched a good market price. Then in the mid-1950s his father replaced the oaks with mandarin orange trees.

Cypress Wind Breaks: Since citrus trees need to be protected from chilly winds, cypress trees (Cupressus sempervirens var. sempervirens) were planted around the orchards as wind breaks in windy areas like Bodrum and Datca. Grape vines were trained up the trees to provide an additional crop.